There
are thousands of scientific studies done on the constituents of essential
oils. Below you will find full abstracts
and links to the studies that we cite in our articles here on Well Oiled Chaos.
BERGAMOT
Saiyudthong S, Marsden CA. Acute effects of bergamot oil on anxiety-related behaviour and corticosterone level in rats. Phytother Res. 2011;25(6):858-862.
Abstract:
Bergamot
essential oil (BEO), Citrus aurantium subsp. bergamia (Risso) Wright & Arn.
(Rutaceae), is used widely in aromatherapy to reduce stress and anxiety despite
limited scientific evidence. A previous study showed that BEO significantly
increased gamma-aminobutyric acid levels in rat hippocampus, suggesting
potential anxiolytic properties. The aim of this study was to investigate the
effect of BEO (1.0%, 2.5% and 5.0% w/w) administered to rats on both
anxiety-related behaviours (the elevated plus-maze (EPM) and hole-board tests)
and stress-induced levels of plasma corticosterone in comparison with the
effects of diazepam. Inhalation of BEO (1% and 2.5%) and injection of diazepam
(1 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly increased the percentage of open arm entries on
the EPM. The percentage time spent in the open arms was also significantly
enhanced following administration of either BEO (2.5% and 5%) or diazepam.
Total arm entries were significantly increased with the highest dose (5%),
suggesting an increase in locomotor activity. In the hole-board test, 2.5% BEO
and diazepam significantly increased the number of head dips. 2.5% BEO and
diazepam attenuated the corticosterone response to acute stress caused by
exposure to the EPM. In conclusion, both BEO and diazepam exhibited
anxiolytic-like behaviours and attenuated HPA axis activity by reducing the
corticosterone response to stress.
Copyright
© 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
CINNAMON
Kalemb D., Kunicka A. Antibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oils. Curr Med Chem. 2003 May;10(10):813-29.
Abstract:
In recent years there has been an increasing interest in the use
of natural substances, and some questions concerning the safety of synthetic
compounds have encouraged more detailed studies of plant resources. Essential oils,
odorous and volatile products of plant secondary metabolism, have a
wide application in folk medicine, food flavouring and preservation as well as
in fragrance industries. The antimicrobial properties of essentialoils have
been known for many centuries. In recent years (1987-2001), a large number
of essential oils and their constituents have been investigated
for their antimicrobial properties against some bacteria and fungi in more than
500 reports. This paper reviews the classical methods commonly used for the
evaluation of essential oils antibacterial and antifungal
activities. The agar diffusion method (paper disc and well) and the dilution
method (agar and liquid broth) as well as turbidimetric and impedimetric
monitoring of microorganism growth in the presence of
tested essential oils are described. Factors influencing the in
vitro antimicrobial activity of essential oils and the
mechanisms of essential oils action on microorganisms are
reported. This paper gives an overview on the susceptibility of human and
food-borne bacteria and fungi towards
different essential oils and their constituents.
Essential oils of spices and herbs (thyme, origanum, mint, cinnamon,
salvia and clove) were found to possess the strongest antimicrobial properties
among many tested.
Khan, MS. and Ahmad, I. In vitro antifungal, anti-elastase and anti-keratinase activity of essential oils of Cinnamomum-, Syzygium- and Cymbopogon-species against Aspergillus fumigatus and Trichophyton rubrum. Phytomedicine. 2011 Dec 15;19(1):48-55. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2011.07.005. Epub 2011 Sep 3.
Abstract:
This study was aimed to evaluate effects of
certain essential oils namely Cinnamomum
verum, Syzygium aromaticum, Cymbopogon citratus, Cymbopogon martini
and their major components cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, citral and geraniol respectively,
on growth, hyphal ultrastructure and virulence factors of Aspergillus fumigatus
and Trichophyton rubrum. The antifungal activity
of essential oils and their major constituents was in the order
of cinnamaldehyde>eugenol>geraniol=C. verum>citral>S. aromaticum>C.
citratus>C. martini, both in liquid and solid media against T. rubrum and A.
fumigatus. Based on promising antifungal activity of eugenol and
cinnamaldehyde, these oils were further tested for their inhibitory
activity against ungerminated and germinated conidia in test fungi.
Cinnamaldehyde was found to be more active than eugenol. To assess the possible
mode of action of cinnamaldehyde, electron microscopic studies were conducted.
The observations revealed multiple sites of action of cinnamaldehyde mainly on
cell membranes and endomembranous structures of the fungal cell. Further,
test oils were also tested for their anti-virulence activity. More
than 70% reduction in elastase activity was recorded in A. fumigatus by
the oils of C. verum, C. martini, eugenol, cinnamaldehyde and
geraniol. Similar reduction in keratinase activity in A. niger was recorded for
the oils of C. martini and geraniol. Maximum reduction (96.56%) in
elastase activity was produced by cinnamaldehyde whereas; geraniol caused maximum
inhibition (97.31%) of keratinase activity. Our findings highlight
anti-elastase and anti-keratinase activity of above
mentioned essential oils as a novel property to be exploited in
controlling invasive and superficial mycoses.
CLOVE
Kalemb D., Kunicka A. Antibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oils. Curr Med Chem. 2003 May;10(10):813-29.
Abstract:
In recent years there has been an increasing interest in the use
of natural substances, and some questions concerning the safety of synthetic
compounds have encouraged more detailed studies of plant
resources. Essential oils, odorous and volatile products of
plant secondary metabolism, have a wide application in folk medicine, food
flavouring and preservation as well as in fragrance industries. The
antimicrobial properties of essentialoils have been known for many
centuries. In recent years (1987-2001), a large number
of essential oils and their constituents have been investigated
for their antimicrobial properties against some bacteria and fungi in more than
500 reports. This paper reviews the classical methods commonly used for the
evaluation of essential oils antibacterial and antifungal
activities. The agar diffusion method (paper disc and well) and the dilution
method (agar and liquid broth) as well as turbidimetric and impedimetric
monitoring of microorganism growth in the presence of
tested essential oils are described. Factors influencing the in
vitro antimicrobial activity of essential oils and the
mechanisms of essential oils action on microorganisms are
reported. This paper gives an overview on the susceptibility of human and
food-borne bacteria and fungi towards
different essential oils and their constituents.
Essential oils of spices and herbs (thyme, origanum, mint, cinnamon,
salvia and clove) were found to possess the strongest antimicrobial properties
among many tested.
Khan, MS. and Ahmad, I. In vitro antifungal, anti-elastase and anti-keratinase activity of essential oils of Cinnamomum-, Syzygium- and Cymbopogon-species against Aspergillus fumigatus and Trichophyton rubrum. Phytomedicine. 2011 Dec 15;19(1):48-55. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2011.07.005. Epub 2011 Sep 3.
Abstract:
This study was aimed to evaluate effects of
certain essential oils namely Cinnamomum
verum, Syzygium aromaticum, Cymbopogon citratus, Cymbopogon martini
and their major components cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, citral and geraniol
respectively, on growth, hyphal ultrastructure and virulence factors of
Aspergillus fumigatus and Trichophyton rubrum. The antifungal activity
of essential oils and their major constituents was in the order
of cinnamaldehyde>eugenol>geraniol=C.
verum>citral>S. aromaticum>C. citratus>C. martini, both in liquid
and solid media against T. rubrum and A. fumigatus. Based on promising
antifungal activity of eugenol and cinnamaldehyde, these oils were
further tested for their inhibitory activity against ungerminated and
germinated conidia in test fungi. Cinnamaldehyde was found to be more
active than eugenol. To assess the possible mode of action of cinnamaldehyde,
electron microscopic studies were conducted. The observations revealed multiple
sites of action of cinnamaldehyde mainly on cell membranes and endomembranous
structures of the fungal cell. Further, test oils were also tested
for their anti-virulence activity. More than 70% reduction in elastase activity
was recorded in A. fumigatus by the oils of C. verum, C. martini,
eugenol, cinnamaldehyde and geraniol. Similar reduction in keratinase activity
in A. niger was recorded for the oils of C. martini and geraniol.
Maximum reduction (96.56%) in elastase activity was produced by cinnamaldehyde
whereas; geraniol caused maximum inhibition (97.31%) of keratinase activity.
Our findings highlight anti-elastase and anti-keratinase activity of above
mentioned essential oils as a novel property to be exploited in
controlling invasive and superficial mycoses.
Kothiwale, SV, Pstwardhan V. And Gandhi M, et al. A comparative study of antiplaque and antigingivitis effects of herbal mouthrinse containing tea tree oil, clove, and basil with commercially available essential oil mouthrinse. J Indian Soc Periodontol. 2014 May;18(3):316-20. doi: 10.4103/0972-124X.134568.
Abstract:
BACKGROUND:
The relatively safe nature and cost-effectiveness of herbal
extracts have led to a resurgent interest in their utility as therapeutic
agents. Therefore, this prospective, double-blind, randomly controlled clinical
trial was designed to compare the antiplaque and antigingivitis effects of
newly formulated mouthrinse containing tea tree oil (TTO), clove, and
basil with those of commercially available essential oil (EO) mouthrinse.
MATERIALS AND METHODS:
Forty patients were selected for a 21-day study period and
randomly divided into two groups. The test group patients were given newly
formulated herbal mouthrinse and the control group patients were given
commercially available EO mouthrinse. The Plaque Index (PI), Gingival Index
(GI), and Papillary Marginal Attachment (PMA) Index were recorded at baseline,
14 days, and 21 days. The microbial colony forming units (CFU) were assessed at
baseline and 21 days.
RESULTS:
Test group patients using herbal mouthrinse showed significant
improvement in GI (0.16), PI (0.57), and PMA (0.02) scores. These improvements
were comparable to those achieved with commercially available EO mouthrinse.
However, the aerobic and anaerobic CFU of microbiota were reduced with the
herbal mouthrinse (P = 0.0000).
CONCLUSION:
The newly formulated herbal mouthrinse and commercially available
mouthrinse were beneficial clinically as antiplaque and antigingivitis agents.
Newly formulated mouthrinses showed significant reduction in microbial CFU at
21 days. So, our findings support the regular use of herbal mouthrinse as an
antiplaque, antigingivitis, and antimicrobial rinse for better efficacy.
EUCALYPTUS
Bachir, RG. and Benali M. Antibacterial activity of the essential oils from the leaves of Eucalyptus globulus against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2012 Sep;2(9):739-42. doi: 10.1016/S2221-1691(12)60220-2.
Abstract:
OBJECTIVE:
To examine the in vitro antimicrobial activities of essential oil
of the leaves of Eucalyptus globulus (E. globulus).
METHODS:
The essential oils of this plant were obtained by the
hydrodistillation method. The inhibitory effects of this essential oil were
tested against Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus)
by using agar disc diffusion and dilution broth methods.
RESULTS:
The results obtained showed that essential oil of the leaves of
E. globulus has antimicrobial activity against gram
negative bacteria (E. coli) as well as gram
positive bacteria (S. aureus).
CONCLUSION:
The encouraging results indicate the essential oil of
E. globulus leaves might be exploited as natural antibiotic for the
treatment of several infectious diseases caused by these two germs, and could
be useful in understanding the relations between traditional cures and current
medicines.
FRANKINCENSE
Dozmorov MG,
Yang Q, Wu W et al. Differential effects of selective frankincense (Ru Xiang)
essential oil versus non-selective sandalwood (Tan Xiang) essential oil on
cultured bladder cancer cells: a microarray and bioinformatics study.
Chin
Med. 2014 Jul 2;9:18. doi:
10.1186/1749-8546-9-18. eCollection 2014.
Abstract:
BACKGROUND:
Frankincense (Boswellia carterii, known as Ru Xiang in Chinese) and sandalwood (Santalum album, known as Tan Xiang in Chinese) are cancer preventive and therapeutic agents in Chinese medicine. Their biologically active ingredients are usually extracted from frankincense by hydrodistillation and sandalwood by distillation. This study aims to investigate the anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic activities of frankincense and sandalwood essential oils in cultured human bladder cancer cells.METHODS:
The effects of frankincense (1,400-600 dilutions) (v/v) and sandalwood (16,000-7,000 dilutions) (v/v) essential oils on cell viability were studied in established human bladder cancer J82 cells and immortalized normal human bladder urothelial UROtsa cells using a colorimetric XTT cell viability assay. Genes that responded to essential oil treatments in human bladder cancer J82 cells were identified using the Illumina Expression BeadChip platform and analyzed for enriched functions and pathways. The chemical compositions of the essential oils were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.RESULTS:
Human bladder cancer J82 cells were more sensitive to the pro-apoptotic effects of frankincense essential oil than the immortalized normal bladder UROtsa cells. In contrast, sandalwood essential oil exhibited a similar potency in suppressing the viability of both J82 and UROtsacells. Although frankincense and sandalwood essential oils activated common pathways such as inflammatory interleukins (IL-6 signaling), eachessential oil had a unique molecular action on the bladder cancer cells. Heat shock proteins and histone core proteins were activated by frankincenseessential oil, whereas negative regulation of protein kinase activity and G protein-coupled receptors were activated by sandalwood essential oiltreatment.CONCLUSION:
The effects of frankincense and sandalwood essential oils on J82 cells and UROtsa cells involved different mechanisms leading to cancer cell death. While frankincense essential oil elicited selective cancer cell death via NRF-2-mediated oxidative stress, sandalwood essential oilinduced non-selective cell death via DNA damage and cell cycle arrest.Al Saidi S., Rameshkumar K., Hisham A. et al. Composition and antibacterial activity of the essential oils of four commercial grades of Omani luban, the oleo-gum resin of Boswellia sacra FLUECK. Chem Biodivers. 2012 Mar;9(3):615-24. doi: 10.1002/cbdv.201100189.
Abstract:
The
essential oil compositions of four botanically certified and commercially
available samples of Omani lubans (oleo-gum resins of Boswellia sacra
Flueck.), locally known as Hoojri, Najdi, Shathari, and Shaabi in Jibali
Arabic, obtained from plants growing in four different geographic locations of
the Dhofar region of Oman, were analyzed by GC-FID, GC/MS, and (13) C-NMR
spectroscopy. The market price of these four grades of lubans differed
considerably, according to their color, clump size, and texture. However, this
study revealed that Hoojri, the first grade luban, and Shaabi, the fourth grade
luban, which greatly differed in their price, closely resembled each other in
their essential oil composition, yield, and physicochemical characteristics,
except the color and texture. The composition, yield, and specific rotation of
the oils of Najdi and Shathari, the second and the third grade lubans,
respectively, were different from those of Hoojri and Shaabi, but they both had
high limonene contents. Najdi oil was different from the other three oils in
terms of its high myrcene content. α-Pinene was the principal component in all
the oils and can be considered as a chemotaxonomical marker that confirms the
botanical and geographical source of the resins. All the oils showed pronounced
activity against a panel of bacteria, and the trend in their bioactivity and
their mode of action are discussed.
Fung KM, Suhail MM, McClendon B, Woolley CL, Young DG, Lin HK. Management of basal cell carcinoma of the skin using frankincense (Boswellia sacra) essential oil: A case report. OA Alternative Medicine 2013 Jun 01;1(2):14.
INTRODUCTION:
Basal-cell
carcinoma (BCC) is the most common form of skin cancer. Incidence of BCC is
rising rapidly worldwide associated with a significant increase in health care
costs. Various treatment options are available for patients diagnosed with BCC
ranging from surgery, electrodessication, radiation, photodynamic therapy to
non-invasive therapeutic approaches. Traditionally being used for aromatherapy,
based on the abundance of highly volatile, aromatic compounds, frankincense
essential oil prepared by hydrodistillation of Boswellia sacra gum
resins, also possesses anti-cancer activity that can potentially provide
non-surgical and non-invasive treatment option for BCC by topical application.
This case report discusses the management of BCC of the skin using frankincense
(Boswellia sacra) essential oil.
CASE REPORT:
We
present a case of a male patient, with two foci (arm and chest) of BCC, treated
with local and topical application of frankincense essential oil several times
a day, for a period of 20 weeks. Biopsies were performed before and after
frankincense essential oil treatment. Pathological study demonstrated total
resolution of the BCC on the arm and substantial resolution in the BCC of the
chest after treatment. Significant increase in apoptotic cells was observed in
the residual carcinoma in the chest. Topical application of frankincense
essential oil did not cause redness, swelling, erosion, crusts, vesicles,
squamae, itching, tingling, or any other local or systemic side effects in this
patient.
CONCLUSION:
Local
application of frankincense essential oil may provide a non-surgical treatment
alternative, with no or minimal side effect for carcinoma in situ,
minimally invasive carcinoma and pre-cancerous conditions such as actinic
keratosis. A study with larger number of patients with both squamous-cell
carcinoma and BCC is required to confirm our current findings.
Moussaieff A., Rimmerman N., Bregman, T et al. Incensole acetate, an incense component, elicits psychoactivity by activating TRPV3 channels in the brain. The FASEB Jnl. 2008 Aug, 22(8):3024-3034.
Abstract:
Burning of Boswellia resin
as incense has been part of religious and cultural ceremonies for millennia and
is believed to contribute to the spiritual exaltation associated with such
events. Transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) 3 is an ion channel
implicated in the perception of warmth in the skin. TRPV3 mRNA has also been
found in neurons throughout the brain; however, the role of TRPV3 channels
there remains unknown. Here we show that incensole acetate (IA), a Boswellia resin
constituent, is a potent TRPV3 agonist that causes anxiolytic-like and
antidepressive-like behavioral effects in wild-type (WT) mice with concomitant
changes in c-Fos activation in the brain. These behavioral effects were not
noted in TRPV3−/− mice, suggesting that they are mediated via TRPV3 channels. IA
activated TRPV3 channels stably expressed in HEK293 cells and in keratinocytes
from TRPV3+/+ mice. It had no effect on keratinocytes from
TRPV3−/− mice and showed modest or no effect on TRPV1, TRPV2, and TRPV4,
as well as on 24 other receptors, ion channels, and transport proteins. Our
results imply that TRPV3 channels in the brain may play a role in emotional
regulation. Furthermore, the biochemical and pharmacological effects of IA may
provide a biological basis for deeply rooted cultural and religious traditions.
Moussaieff, A., Rimmerman, N., Bregman, T., Straiker, A., Felder, C. C., Shoham, S., Kashman, Y., Huang, S. M., Lee, H., Shohami, E., Mackie, K., Caterina, M. J., Walker, J. M., Fride, E., Mechoulam, R. Incensole acetate, an incense component, elicits psychoactivity by activating TRPV3 channels in the brain.
Suhail MM, Wu W, Cao A et al. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2011 Dec 15;11:129. doi: 10.1186/1472-6882-11-129. Boswellia sacra essential oil induces tumor cell-specific apoptosis and suppresses tumor aggressiveness in cultured human breast cancer cells.
Abstract:
BACKGROUND:
Gum resins
obtained from trees of the Burseraceae family (Boswellia sp.) are
important ingredients in incense and perfumes. Extracts prepared
from Boswellia sp. gum resins have been shown to possess
anti-inflammatory and anti-neoplastic effects. Essential oil prepared by
distillation of the gum resin traditionally used for aromatic therapy has also
been shown to have tumor cell-specific anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic
activities. The objective of this study was to optimize conditions for
preparing Boswellea sacra essential oil with the highest biological
activity in inducing tumor cell-specific cytotoxicity and suppressing
aggressive tumor phenotypes in human breast cancer cells.
METHODS:
Boswellia sacra essential
oil was prepared from Omani Hougari grade resins through hydrodistillation at
78 or 100 °C for 12 hours. Chemical compositions were identified by gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry; and total boswellic acids contents were
quantified by high-performance liquid
chromatography. Boswellia sacra essential oil-mediated cell
viability and death were studied in established human breast cancer cell lines
(T47D, MCF7, MDA-MB-231) and an immortalized normal human breast cell line
(MCF10-2A). Apoptosis was assayed by genomic DNA fragmentation. Anti-invasive
and anti-multicellular tumor properties were evaluated by cellular network and
spheroid formation models, respectively. Western blot analysis was performed to
study Boswellia sacra essential oil-regulated proteins involved
in apoptosis, signaling pathways, and cell cycle regulation.
RESULTS:
More
abundant high molecular weight compounds, including boswellic acids, were
present in Boswellia sacra essential oil prepared at 100 °C
hydrodistillation. All three human breast cancer cell lines were sensitive to
essential oil treatment with reduced cell viability and elevated cell death,
whereas the immortalized normal human breast cell line was more resistant to
essential oil treatment. Boswellia sacra essential oil
hydrodistilled at 100 °C was more potent than the essential oil prepared at 78
°C in inducing cancer cell death, preventing the cellular network formation (MDA-MB-231)
cells on Matrigel, causing the breakdown of multicellular tumor spheroids (T47D
cells), and regulating molecules involved in apoptosis, signal transduction,
and cell cycle progression.
CONCLUSIONS:
Similar to
our previous observations in human bladder cancer
cells, Boswellia sacra essential oil induces breast cancer
cell-specific cytotoxicity. Suppression of cellular network formation and
disruption of spheroid development of breast cancer cells
by Boswellia sacra essential oil suggest that the essential oil
may be effective for advanced breast cancer. Consistently, the essential oil
represses signaling pathways and cell cycle regulators that have been proposed
as therapeutic targets for breast cancer. Future pre-clinical and clinical
studies are urgently needed to evaluate the safety and efficacy
of Boswellia sacra essential oil as a therapeutic agent for
treating breast cancer.
University of Leicester. Press Office. Christmas Brings Treatment Hope for Cancer Patients. University of Leicester. N.p., 20 Dec. 2013. Web. 2 Dec. 2014. <http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/press/press-releases/2013/december/christmas-gift-brings-treatment-hope-for-cancer-patients>.
Yuan Y, Sui SX, Wang Y, et al. Acetyl-11-keto-beta-boswellic acid (AKBA) prevents human colonic adenocarcinoma growth through modulation of multiple signaling pathways. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2013 Oct;1830(10):4907-16. doi: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2013.06.039. Epub 2013 Jul 10.
Abstract:
BACKGROUND:
Acetyl-11-keto-beta-boswellic
acid (AKBA) is a derivative of boswellic acid. We have previously reported that
AKBA can reduce the number and size of colonic adenomatous polyps in the
APC(Min/+) mouse model. In this study, we evaluated the effect of AKBA on human
colonic adenocarcinoma growth. Its efficacy and toxicity were compared with
those of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug aspirin.
METHODS:
The
inhibition of cancer cell growth was estimated by colorimetric and clonogenic
assay. Cell cycle distribution was analyzed by the flow cytometry assay.
Annexin V-FITC/PI staining and JC-1 fluorescence probe assays were performed to
determine the apoptotic cells. Further experiment was carried out in mice with
HT-29 xenografts. AKBA was orally administered for 24days. The HT-29 xenografts
were removed for TUNEL staining and western blotting analysis. Blood was
obtained for clinical chemical analysis, and samples of organs were sectioned
for microscopic assessment.
RESULTS:
AKBA
significantly inhibited human colon adenocarcinoma growth, showing arrest of
the cell cycle in G1-phase and induction of apoptosis. AKBA administration in
mice effectively delayed the growth of HT-29 xenografts without signs of
toxicity. The activity of AKBA was more potent than that of aspirin. Western
blotting suggested that this activity may arise from its multiple effects on
the activation of apoptotic proteins, suppression of inflammatory cytokines and
modulation of EGFR and ATM/P53 signaling pathways in the HT-29 xenografts.
CONCLUSIONS:
AKBA
prevents the growth of colonic adenocarcinoma through modulation of multiple
signaling pathways.
GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE:
AKBA could
be a promising agent in the prevention of colonic adenocarcinomas.
Xiao N, Suhail M, Yang, Q et al. Frankincense essential oil prepared from hydrodistillation of Boswellia sacragum resins induces human pancreatic cancer cell death in cultures and in a xenograft murine model.
Abstract:
BACKGROUND:
Regardless
of the availability of therapeutic options, the overall 5-year survival for patients
diagnosed with pancreatic cancer remains less than 5%. Gum resins from Boswellia species,
also known as frankincense, have been used as a major ingredient in Ayurvedic
and Chinese medicine to treat a variety of health-related conditions. Both frankincense
chemical extracts and essential oil prepared from Boswellia species
gum resins exhibit anti-neoplastic activity, and have been investigated as
potential anti-cancer agents. The goals of this study are to identify optimal
condition for preparing frankincense essential oil that possesses potent
anti-tumor activity, and to evaluate the activity in both cultured human
pancreatic cancer cells and a xenograft mouse cancer model.
METHOD:
Boswellia sacra gum resins were hydrodistilled at
78°C; and essential oil distillate fractions were collected at different
durations (Fraction I at 0–2 h, Fraction II at 8–10 h, and Fraction III at
11–12 h). Hydrodistillation of the second half of gum resins was performed at
100°C; and distillate was collected at 11–12 h (Fraction IV). Chemical
compositions were identified by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS);
and total boswellic acids contents were quantified by high-performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC). Frankincense essential oil-modulated pancreatic tumor
cell viability and cytotoxicity were determined by colorimetric assays. Levels
of apoptotic markers, signaling molecules, and cell cycle regulators expression
were characterized by Western blot analysis. A heterotopic (subcutaneous) human
pancreatic cancer xenograft nude mouse model was used to evaluate anti-tumor
capability of Fraction IV frankincense essential oil in vivo.
Frankincense essential oil-induced tumor cytostatic and cytotoxic activities in
animals were assessed by immunohistochemistry.
RESULTS:
Longer
duration and higher temperature hydrodistillation produced more abundant high
molecular weight compounds, including boswellic acids, in frankincense
essential oil fraactions. Human pancreatic cancer cells were sensitive to
Fractions III and IV (containing higher molecular weight compounds) treatment
with suppressed cell viability and increased cell death. Essential oil
activated the caspase-dependent apoptotic pathway, induced a rapid and
transient activation of Akt and Erk1/2, and suppressed levels of cyclin D1 cdk4
expression in cultured pancreatic cancer cells. In addition, Boswellia
sacra essential oil Fraction IV exhibited anti-proliferative
and pro-apoptotic activities against pancreatic tumors in the heterotopic
xenograft mouse model.
CONCLUSION:
All
fractions of frankincense essential oil from Boswellia sacra are
capable of suppressing viability and inducing apoptosis of a panel of human
pancreatic cancer cell lines. Potency of essential oil-suppressed tumor cell
viability may be associated with the greater abundance of high molecular weight
compounds in Fractions III and IV. Although chemical component(s) responsible
for tumor cell cytotoxicity remains undefined, crude essential oil prepared
from hydrodistillation of Boswellia sacra gum resins might
be a useful alternative therapeutic agent for treating patients with pancreatic
adenocarcinoma, an aggressive cancer with poor prognosis.
LEMON
Komiya M, Takeuchi T, and E Harada. Lemon oil vapor causes an anti-stress effect via modulating the 5-HT and DA activities in mice .Behav Brain Res. 2006 Sep 25;172(2):240-9. Epub 2006 Jun 15.
Abstract:
We examined the anti-stress action of the essential oils of
lavender, rose, and lemon using an elevated plus-maze task (EPM), a forced
swimming task (FST), and an open field task (OFT) in mice. Lemon oil had the
strongest anti-stress effect in all three behavioral tasks. We further
investigated a regulatory mechanism of the lemon oil by pre-treatments with
agonists or antagonists to benzodiazepine, 5-HT, DA, and adrenaline receptors
by the EPM and the FST. The anti-stress effect of lemon oil was significantly
blocked by pre-treatment with frumazenil, benzodiazepine receptor antagonist,
or apomorphine, a nonselective DA receptor agonist. In contrast, agonists or
antagonists to the 5-HT receptor and the alpha-2 adrenaline receptor did not
affect the anti-stress effect of lemon oil. Buspirone, DOI, and mianserine
blocked the antidepressant-like effect of lemon oil in the FST, but WAY100,635
did not. These findings suggest that the antidepressant-like effect of lemon
oil is closely related with the 5-HTnergic pathway, especially via 5-HT(1A)
receptor. Moreover, the lemon oil significantly accelerated the metabolic
turnover of DA in the hippocampus and of 5-HT in the prefrontal cortex and
striatum. These results suggest that lemon oil possesses anxiolytic,
antidepressant-like effects via the suppression of DA activity related to
enhanced 5-HTnergic neurons.
OREGANO
Frankkova A, Marounek M, Mozrova V et al. Antibacterial Activities of Plant-Derived Compounds and Essential Oils Toward Cronobacter sakazakii and Cronobacter malonaticus. Foodborne Pathog Dis. 2014 Jul 25. [Epub ahead of print]
Abstract:
Cronobacter sakazakii and C. malonaticus are opportunistic
pathogens that cause infections in children and immunocompromised adults. In
the present study, the antibacterial activity of 19 plant-derived
compounds, 5 essential oils, and an extract of propolis were assessed against
C. sakazakii and C. malonaticus. The effects of most of these antimicrobials
have not been reported previously. Both strains were susceptible to thymol,
carvacrol, thymoquinone, p-cymene, linalool, camphor, citral, eugenol, and
trans-cinnamaldehyde as well as cinnamon, lemongrass, oregano, clove, and
laurel essential oils; their minimum inhibitory concentrations varied between
0.1 and 2.0 mg/mL. As an alternative treatment method, vapors of the volatiles
were tested as an indirect treatment. Vapors of trans-cinnamaldehyde,
eugenol, oregano, and cinnamon essential oils inhibited both tested
strains, while vapors of linalool were only active against C. sakazakii. To our
knowledge, this study is the first time that the inhibitory activity of the
vapors of these compounds and essential oils has been reported against
Cronobacter spp.
Giling DH, Kitajima M, Torrey JR, Bright KR , Antiviral efficacy and mechanisms of action of oregano essential oil and its primary component carvacrol against murine norovirus. J Appl Microbiol. 2014 May;116(5):1149-63. doi: 10.1111/jam.12453. Epub 2014 Feb 12.
Abstract:
AIMS:
To investigate the antiviral efficacy
of oregano oil and its primary active component, carvacrol, against
the nonenveloped murine norovirus (MNV), a human norovirus surrogate.
METHODS AND RESULTS:
Along with an observed loss in cell culture infectivity,
the antiviral mechanisms of action were determined in side-by-side
experiments including a cell-binding assay, an RNase I protection assay and
transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Both antimicrobials produced
statistically significant reductions (P ≤ 0·05) in virus infectivity within 15
min of exposure (c. 1·0-log10). Despite this, the MNV infectivity remained
stable with increasing time exposure to oregano oil (1·07-log10 after
24 h), while carvacrol was far more effective, producing up to 3·87-log10
reductions within 1 h. Based on the RNase I protection assay, both antimicrobials
appeared to act directly upon the virus capsid and subsequently the RNA. Under
TEM, the capsids enlarged from ≤35 nm in diameter to up to 75 nm following
treatment with oregano oil and up to 800 nm with carvacrol; with
greater expansion, capsid disintegration could be observed. Virus adsorption to
host cells did not appear to be affected by either antimicrobial.
CONCLUSIONS:
Our results demonstrate that carvacrol is effective in
inactivating MNV within 1 h of exposure by acting directly on the viral capsid
and subsequently the RNA.
SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY:
This study provides novel findings on
the antiviral properties of oregano oil and carvacrol
against MNV and demonstrates the potential of carvacrol as a natural food and
surface (fomite) sanitizer to control human norovirus.
Ipek E, Tuylu BA, Zeytinoglu. Effects of carvacrol on sister chromatid exchanges in human lymphocyte cultures. Cytotechnology. 2003 Nov;43(1-3):145-8. doi: 10.1023/B: CYTO.0000039896.26707.40.
Abstract:
Carvacrol is a predominant aromatic compound in oil
of oregano. It has naturally remarkable antibacterial, antiviral,
antifungal and antiparasital effects. In this study, genotoxic and
antigenotoxic activities of carvacrol were investigated by the in vitro sister
chromatid exchange (SCE) assay on human peripheral blood lymphocytes. The genotoxicity
test was performed with carvacrol in two donors. On the other hand, inhibitory
effect of carvacrol was tested in the presence of mitomycin C (MMC) in the same
assay. According to data, all doses of carvacrol did not increase the formation
of SCE, whereas it inhibited the rate of SCE induced by MMC. In conclusion,
carvacrol exhibited a significant antigenotoxic activity in mammalian cells,
indicating its potential for use as an antigenotoxic agent.
Lai W, Chuang, HS, Lee MH et al. Inhibition of herpes simplex virus type 1 by thymol-related monoterpenoids. Planta Med. 2012 Oct;78(15):1636-8. doi: 10.1055/s-0032-1315208. Epub 2012 Aug 13.
Abstract:
This study examined the anti-herpes simplex virus type I activity
of the major constituents of several essential oils. Plaque reduction assays
were performed to evaluate anti-herpes simplex virus type I activity. Thymol
and carvacrol both possessed significant antiviral activity
with an IC₅₀ of 7 µM, and herpes simplex virus type I was 90 %
inactivated within 1 hr. The mode of antiviral action was
shown to affect the virion directly. Evidence was also observed by electron
microscopy. Evaluation of the structural requirements
for antiviral activity of thymol-related monoterpenoids revealed that
aliphatic side chains had a minor effect, while a hydrophilic group on the
benzene ring was sufficient for activity. Our results suggest that thymol
andcarvacrol are potential candidates for topical therapeutic application
to reduce herpes simplex virus transmission.
Rosato A, Vitali C, Gallo D et al. The inhibition of Candida species by selected essential oils and their synergism with amphotericin B. Phytomedicine. 2008 Aug;15(8):635-8. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2008.05.001. Epub 2008 Jun 24.
Abstract:
In this work we highlight a possible synergistic anti-Candida
effect between Melaleuca alternifolia, Origanum vulgare and
Pelargonium graveolens essential oils and the antifungal compound Amphotericin
B. The antifungal activity was assessed using the agar dilution method in
eleven Candida strains. The results obtained indicate the occurrence of a
synergistic interaction between the essential oils under study and Amphotericin
B. P. graveolens essential oil appeared to be the most effective, inhibiting
all the Candida species evaluated by this study.
Sokmen M, Serkedjieva J, Daferera d, et al. In vitro antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antiviral activities of the essential oil and various extracts from herbal parts and callus cultures of Origanum acutidens. J Agric Food Chem. 2004 Jun 2;52(11):3309-12.
Abstract:
The essential oil and various extracts obtained
from Origanum acutidens and methanol extracts (MeOH) from callus
cultures have been evaluated for their antioxidative, antimicrobial,
and antiviral properties. The essential oil exhibited strong
antimicrobial activity with a significant inhibitory effect against 27 (77%) of
the 35 bacteria, 12 (67%) of the 18 fungi, and a yeast tested and moderate
antioxidative capacity in DPPH and beta-carotene/linoleic acid assays. GC and
GC-MS analyses of the oil resulted in the identification of 38 constituents,
carvacrol being the main component. The MeOH extracts obtained from herbal
parts showed better antioxidative effect than that of butylated hydroxytoluene
(BHT), whereas callus cultures also exhibited interesting antioxidative
patterns. Concerning antiviral activity, none of the extracts
inhibited the reproduction of influenza A/Aichi virus in MDCK cells. The MeOH
extracts from herbal parts inhibited the reproduction of HSV-1, and also callus
cultures exerted slight antiherpetic effect.
Suntres, ZE, Coccimiglio
J, and Alipour M.
The Bioactivity and Toxicological Actions of Carvacrol. Crit
Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2015 Feb
23;55(3):304-318.
Abstract:
Carvacrol is a monoterpenic phenol produced by an abundant
number of aromatic plants, including thyme and oregano.
Presently, carvacrol is used in low concentrations as a food
flavoring ingredient and preservative, as well as a fragrance ingredient in
cosmetic formulations. In recent years, considerable research has been
undertaken in an effort to establish the biological actions
of carvacrol for its potential use in clinical applications. Results
from in vitro and in vivo studies show that carvacrol possess a
variety of biological and pharmacological properties including antioxidant,
antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, anti-inflammatory,
hepatoprotective, spasmolytic, and vasorelaxant. The focus of this review is to
evaluate the existing knowledge regarding the biological, pharmacological, and
toxicological effects of carvacrol.
Zhang XL,
GuoYS, Wang CH et al. Phenolic compounds
from Origanum vulgare and their antioxidant
and antiviral activities. Food Chem. 2014;152:300-6.
doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.11.153. Epub 2013 Dec 1.
Abstract:
In the present study, six new phenolic compounds (1-6) along with
five known ones were isolated from the ethanol extract of the whole plants
ofOriganum vulgare. The structures of the new compounds were identified on
the basis of extensive spectroscopic analyses (UV, IR, NMR, and HRESIMS) and
acid hydrolysis. Twenty-one phenolic compounds isolated from O. vulgare in our
previous and present studies were evaluated for their in vitro antioxidant
activity using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-scavenging and
ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays; twelve of them including two
new compounds exhibited significant antioxidant activity comparable to that of
ascorbic acid. In addition, the antiviral effects against respiratory
syncytial virus (RSV), Coxsackie virus B3 (CVB3) and herpes simplex virus type
1 (HSV-1) were tested by cytopathic effect (CPE) reduction assay.
PEPPERMINT
Moss M, Hewitt S, Moss L, et
al. Modulation of cognitive performance and mood by aromas of peppermint
and ylang-
ylang. Int J Neurosci. 2008;118(1):59-77.
Abstract:
This
study provides further evidence for the impact of the aromas of plant essential
oils on aspects of cognition and mood in healthy participants. One hundred and
forty-four volunteers were randomly assigned to conditions of ylang-ylang
aroma, peppermint aroma, or no aroma control. Cognitive performance was
assessed using the Cognitive Drug Research computerized assessment battery,
with mood scales completed before and after cognitive testing. The analysis of
the data revealed significant differences between conditions on a number of the
factors underpinning the tests that constitute the battery. Peppermint was
found to enhance memory whereas ylang-ylang impaired it, and lengthened
processing speed. In terms of subjective mood peppermint increased alertness
and ylang-ylang decreased it, but significantly increased calmness. These
results provide support for the contention that the aromas of essential oils
can produce significant and idiosyncratic effects on both subjective and
objective assessments of aspects of human behavior. They are discussed with
reference to possible pharmacological and psychological modes of influence.
ROSEMARY
Luqman S, Dwivedi GR, Darokar MP, et
al. Potential of rosemary oil to be used in drug-resistant infections. Altern
Ther Health
Med. 2007;13(5):54-59.
Abstract:
OBJECTIVE:
To
evaluate the antimicrobial activity potential of the essential oil of rosemary
specifically for its efficacy against the drug-resistant mutants of
Mycobacterium smegmatis, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans.
METHOD:
Antibacterial,
antifungal, and drug resistance-modifying activity was evaluated both
qualitatively and quantitatively following disc diffusion and broth dilution
assay procedures.
RESULTS:
The
rosemary essential oil was found to be more active against the gram-positive
pathogenic bacteria except E. faecalis and drug-resistant mutants of E. coli,
compared to gram-negative bacteria. Similarly, it was found to be more active
toward nonfilamentous, filamentous, dermatophytic pathogenic fungi and
drug-resistant mutants of Candida albicans.
CONCLUSION:
Our
findings suggest that characterization and isolation of the active compound(s)
from the rosemary oil may be useful in counteracting gram-positive bacterial,
fungal, and drug-resistant infections.
Atsumi T.,
and Tonosaki K.. Smelling lavender and
rosemary increases free radical scavenging activity and
decreases cortisol level in saliva.7 Feb 28;150(1):89-96. Epub 2007
Feb 7.
Abstract:
Free radicals/reactive oxygen species are related to many
biological phenomena such as inflammation, aging, and carcinogenesis. The body
possesses various antioxidative systems (free radical scavenging activity,
FRSA) for preventing oxidative stress, and saliva contains such activity. In
the present study, we measured the total salivary FRSA induced after the
smelling of lavender and rosemary essential oils that are widely used in
aromatherapy. Various physiologically active substances in saliva such
as cortisol, secretory IgA, and alpha-amylase activity were found to be
correlated with aroma-induced FRSA. The subjects (22 healthy volunteers)
sniffed aroma for 5 min, and each subject's saliva was collected immediately.
FRSA was measured using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl. The FRSA values were
increased by stimulation with low concentrations (1000 times dilution) of
lavender or by high-concentrations (10 times dilution) of rosemary. In
contrast, both lavender and rosemary stimulations decreasedcortisol levels.
A significant inverse correlation was observed between the FRSA values and
the cortisol levels with each concentration of rosemary stimulation.
No significant changes were noted in sIgA or alpha-amylase. These findings
clarify that lavender and rosemary enhance FRSA and decrease the stress
hormone, cortisol, which protects the body from oxidative stress.
THYME
El-Nekeety AA, Mohamed SR, Hathout
AS et al. Antioxidant properties of
Thymus vulgaris oil against aflatoxin-induce
oxidative stress in male rats.
Toxicon. 2011 Jun;57(7-8):984-91. doi: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.03.021.
Epub 2011
Abstract:
The
leafy parts of thyme and its essential oil have been used in foods
for the flavor, aroma and preservation and also in folk medicines. The aim of
the current study was to determine the components of Thymus vulgaris
L essential oil and to evaluate the protective effects of
this oil against aflatoxin-induce oxidative stress in rats. Thirty
six mature male Sprague-Dawley were divided into six treatment groups and
treated for 2 weeks as follows: control group; the groups treated orally with
low and high doses of T. vulgaris oil (5 and 7.5 mg/kg b.w.); the
group fed AFs-contaminated diet (2.5 mg/kg diet) and the groups fed
AFs-contaminated diet and treated orally with the oil at the two
tested doses. Blood and tissue samples were collected at the end of treatment
period for biochemical study and histological examination. The results indicated
that the oil contains Carvarcrol (45 mg/g), Thymol (24.7 mg/g),
β-Phellandrene (9.7 mg/g), Linalool (4.1 mg/g), Humuline (3.1 mg/g),
α-Phellandrene (2.3 mg/g) and Myrcene (2.1 mg/g). However, α and β-pinene,
Myrcene, α-thyjone, Tricyclene, 1, 8-cineole, and β-sabinene were found in
lower concentrations. Treatment with AFs alone disturbs lipid profile in serum,
decreases Total antioxidant capacity, increase creatinine, uric acid and nitric
oxide in serum and lipid peroxidation in liver and kidney accompanied with a
sever histological changes in the liver tissues. The oil alone at the
two tested doses did not induce any significant changes in the biochemical
parameters or the histological picture. The combined treatment showed
significant improvements in all tested parameters and histological pictures in
the liver tissues. Moreover, this improvement was more pronounced in the group
received the high dose of the oil. It could be concluded that
the essential oil of T. vulgaris has a potential antioxidant activity
and a protective effect against AFs toxicity and this protection was dose
dependent.
Hotta M,
Nakata R, Katsukawa M, et al. Carvacrol, a component of thyme oil, activates
PPARα and γ and suppresses COX-2 expression. J of Lipid Res, 2010; 51(1):
132-139.
Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), the rate-limiting
enzyme in prostaglandin biosynthesis, plays a key role in inflammation and
circulatory homeostasis. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs)
are ligand-dependent transcription factors belonging to the nuclear receptor
superfamily and are involved in the control of COX-2 expression, and vice
versa. Here, we show that COX-2 promoter activity was suppressed by essential
oils derived from thyme, clove, rose, eucalyptus, fennel, and bergamot in
cell-based transfection assays using bovine arterial endothelial cells.
Moreover, from thyme oil, we identified carvacrol as a major component of the suppressor
of COX-2 expression and an activator of PPARα and γ. PPARγ-dependent
suppression of COX-2 promoter activity was observed in response to carvacrol
treatment. In human macrophage-like U937 cells, carvacrol suppressed
lipopolysaccharide-induced COX-2 mRNA and protein expression, suggesting that
carvacrol regulates COX-2 expression through its agonistic effect on PPARγ.
These results may be important in understanding the antiinflammatory and
antilifestyle-related disease properties of carvacrol.
YLANG YLANG
Jung DJ, Cha JY, Kim SE, et al. Effects of Ylang-Ylang aroma
on blood pressure and heart rate in healthy men.J Exerc
Rehabil. 2013
Apr;9(2):250-5. doi: 10.12965/jer.130007. Epub 2013 Apr 25.
Abstract:
Although
the Ylang-Ylang aroma (YYA) has used as a general method for enhancing sedative
effect, there was a little report on the efficacy of YYA on heart function
using the electrocardiogram (EKG). Therefore, identifying of the effects of YYA
on blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) is important in order to demonstrate
the effectiveness of YYA. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects
of YYA on BP and HR in healthy men. Twenty-nine men took part in this study.
The subjects were randomly divided into 2 groups: Ylang-Ylang group (YYG, n=
15) and control group (CG, n= 14). Physiological parameters recorded were BP by
using a sphygmomanometer and HR by using an EKG. The present results
demonstrated that inhalation of YYA significantly decreased the systolic and
diastolic blood pressure. Inhalation of YYA also significantly decreased the
HRs in 10 leads, except in lead I and aVR. This indicates that the HRs recorded
in lead I and aVR were less sensitive or obtuse compared to those in the 10
other leads. Therefore, such a result reveals that it is necessary to be aware
of the terms regarding the position. In the present results, YYA caused a
reduction of HR and BP, and a relief of the arousal level in healthy men. The
present results show a sedative effect of YYA, and this study provides some
evidences for the usage of YYA in medicinal agent.
Moss M, Hewitt S, Moss L, et
al. Modulation of cognitive performance and mood by aromas of peppermint
and ylang- ylang.
Int J Neurosci. 2008;118(1):59-77.
Abstract:
This
study provides further evidence for the impact of the aromas of plant essential
oils on aspects of cognition and mood in healthy participants. One hundred and
forty-four volunteers were randomly assigned to conditions of ylang-ylang
aroma, peppermint aroma, or no aroma control. Cognitive performance was
assessed using the Cognitive Drug Research computerized assessment battery,
with mood scales completed before and after cognitive testing. The analysis of
the data revealed significant differences between conditions on a number of the
factors underpinning the tests that constitute the battery. Peppermint was
found to enhance memory whereas ylang-ylang impaired it, and lengthened
processing speed. In terms of subjective mood peppermint increased alertness
and ylang-ylang decreased it, but significantly increased calmness. These
results provide support for the contention that the aromas of essential oils
can produce significant and idiosyncratic effects on both subjective and
objective assessments of aspects of human behavior. They are discussed with
reference to possible pharmacological and psychological modes of influence.
Can't believe no one has commented! This blog is excellent. Huge info everyone should know...why is this not on mainstream media? EssentOil Sisters, you and the dedicated researchers have done "The People" proud. Nature = The Peoples Medicine. I thank you and send prayers of gratitude and blessings on you all. Maria
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